阿拉克西曼尼
I. 师承
“Anaximenes son of Eurystratus, of Miletus, was a pupil of Anaximander; some say he was also a pupil of Parmenides. He said that the material principle was air and the infinite; and that the stars move, not under the earth, but round it. He used simple and economical Ionic speech. He was active, according to what Apollodorus says, around the time of the capture of Sardis, and died in the 63rd Olympiad (Diogenes Laertius II, 3, qt. Kirk, 143)。
前苏格拉哲学家之间的传承关系并非像后来柏拉图的Academy、Aristotle和Peripatetics那样明显，第一个带哲学色彩的群体的建立是毕达哥拉斯学派，而这也更多是一宗教性质的团体。拉尔修（Laertius）指出有关阿那克西曼尼师承的两种看法：
1． 阿那克西曼尼是阿那克西曼德的学生。绝大部分研究者均持此论，如 Hgel, Zeller, Cornford, Burnet, Guthrie, Windelband, Thilly, and Russell。
2． 阿那克西曼尼师承巴曼尼德。而尼采独持此论断，认为正确的传承关系是：阿那克西曼德----巴曼尼德----阿那克西曼尼。尼采认为“He[Anaximenes] was born during Olympiad 63 (529-525)”(39)，这与通常认为阿那克西曼尼死于Olympiad 63 (529-525)差别太大，而且尼采的推论在学术的内在理路上也缺乏证据：如果阿那克西曼尼是巴曼尼德的学生，那为何巴曼尼德一些重要理论未见阿那克西曼尼有所提及和分析？如存在和非存在、思维和存在的关系、知识（真理）和意见的区分。 这个问题涉及文本的解读，以及复杂的日期推演。 如果将阿那克西曼尼是为阿那克西曼德、而非巴曼尼德的继承者，至少在哲学发展的内在逻辑上是很合理的，正如Zeller 所言：“Anaximenes, also a Milesian, is called by later writers the disciple of Anaximander, which is at least so far true that he clearly betrays the influence of his predecessor (41)”。
II. 作品和文体
“He used simple and economical Ionic speech”。这是相对于Anaximander而言的。阿那克西曼德虽然是用散文撰述哲学作品的第一人，但仍保留诗意化的语言：“speaking of them thus in rather poetical terms”。阿那克西曼尼能够使用简单而经济（simple and economical）的语言来进行哲学写作，表明思辨能力以及语言的掌握、运用能力的提高。
III. 本体论
1. “气”作为本原：
(a). “Anaximenes and Diogenes make air prior to water” (Aristotle, Metaphysics, 984 a)。
(b). Anaximenes of Miletos, son of Eurystratos, who had been an associate of Anaximander, said, like him, that the underlying substance was one and infinite. He did not, however, say it was indeterminate, like Anaximander, but determinate; for he said it was Air (Phys. Op. fr. 2 qt. Burnet, 73).
(c). Anaximenes said that infinite air was the principle, from which the things that are becoming, and that are, and that shall be, and gods and things divine. All come into being and the rest form its products. The form of air is of this kind: whenever it is most equable it is invisible to sight, but is revealed by the cold and the hot and the damp and by movement (Hippolytus Ref. 1, 7, I, qt. Kirk, 145)。
A. 思想的来源与传承：文献（a）表明阿那克西曼尼在泰勒斯的基础上提出是“气”，而非“水”乃世界的本源。文献（b）则说明阿那克西曼尼肯定阿那克西曼德对世界本原的空间和数量上的无限的规定，但不认为其性质“未定”， 而是一种确定的物质形式--“气”。
B. “气”的理解：
（1） “气”（air）在阿那克西曼尼是其有四种含义
（a） In its normal condition, when most evenly distributed, it is invisible, and it then corresponds to our “air”
（b） The breath we inhale
（c） The wind that blows
（d） Mist or vapour
（2） 柏奈特（Burnet）认为阿那克西曼尼以“气”为世界的本原时，涵括此四种含义上。因为“It was Empedokles we shall see, who first discovered that what we call air was a distinct corporeal substance, and not identical with vapour or with empty space (74)。梯利（Thilly）亦持此论。
（3） 但Kirk认为：“Anaximenes probably said that all things were surrounded by “wind (or breath) and air”, and that the soul is related to this air; which suggests that for him air was not mist but, as Hippolytus assumed, the invisible atmospheric air. This is confirmed by the fact that he evidently described winds as slightly condensed form of air (146).
C. 阿那克西曼尼提出以“气”为始基的理由
A. 宇宙物质也应该是生命物质。此点类似泰勒斯认为“水”是本原的理由（Aristotle, Metaphysics, 983b）。阿那克西曼尼观察到呼吸乃生命的象征，而呼吸即“灵气”、“灵魂”： “Just as,” he said, “our soul, being air, holds us together, so do breath and air encompass the whole world” (Aet. Qt. Burnet, 73)。
B. 受到阿那克西曼德的影响，阿那克西曼尼修正泰勒斯的观点，认为更具变化、更不易感知、无限的“气”方为世界本原。
C. Guthrie 认为一理论的提出除了有意识、理性的理论建构之外，还受到“无意识的预设”（unconscious presupposition）的影响：which were his inheritance from the current and popular views of his time (119)。此种预设包括：
（1） That the air which we breathe should be the life itself which animates us is a common idea, and the breath-soul a world-wild conception (128)
（2） The idea that a female could be impregnated, and thus new life originated—Achilles in Iliad (128)
（3） Orphism: “the soul enters into us from the whole as we breathe, borne by the winds” (129).
2．“气”乃神圣（air is divine）：此点同阿那克西曼德，将本原视为神圣：Afterwards, Anaximenes determined that air is a god, and that it comes into being, and is measureless and infinite and always in motion (Cicero, qt. Kirk, 150)。
3． 万物之生成
A. 原因：与泰勒斯和阿那克西曼德通，持物活论，认为本原乃 self-caused, 处self-movement, eternal-motion的状态。
B. 生成的机制：It is always in motion; for things that change do not change unless there be movement. Through becoming denser or finer it has different appearance; for when it is dissolved into what is finer it becomes fire, while winds, again, are air that is becoming condensed and cloud is produced from air by felting. When it is condensed still more, water produced, and when condensed as far as possible, stones. The result is that the most influential components of generation are opposites, hot and cold (Hippolytus Ref. 1, 7, I, qt. Kirk, 145)。这就是阿那克西曼尼的事物的生成乃因本原“气”的“凝聚”(condensation)和“稀薄”(rarefaction)。此理论的提出应该是基于日常生活的观察：呼出的气流可以是冷气，也可以是热气。在这里，阿那克西曼德的“冷”和“热”的对立就体现在气的“稀” （rarity）、“凝”（density）。阿那克西曼德是一中分离生成观，而阿那克曼尼是一种“典型的转化生成观”（赵敦华，11）。
IV. 宇宙论
1． 地球：As the air “felted”, earth, he says, came into being first, quite flat; wherefore it rides, as is reasonable, upon the air (Stromateis, qt. Guthrie, 133)。
A. “气”凝聚首先形成地球
B. 平、圆的地球，如同一桌子，可以否在空气之中。
2． 天体的形成：And the sun, moon and other heavenly bodies originate from earth. He argues at any rate that the sun is earth but acquires great heat form its swift motion (Guthrie, 133).
A. 太阳、月亮和其他天体都是源于地球。照此解释，天体的形成过程应该是“气”先凝聚而成地球，在从地球稀薄成火，从而形成群星。此点是阿那克西曼尼宇宙论中混乱之处。
B. 因为源于地球，故太阳也和地球有同样的构成，只是因为快速的运转而温度很高。
3．对阿那克西曼德宇宙论的一点修正：But on one astronomical point Anaximenes improved on Anaximander, for the report in Hippolytus that according to him “the stars give no heat owing to that their great distance” shows that he abandoned the strange doctrine that the stars are nearer the earth than is the sun (Guthrie, 138)。
V. 气象学
1． 虹（Rainbow）的形成：He also spoke of the rainbow, no longer a radiant goddess Iris but only the effect of the sun’s rays on densely compacted air, which appeared in different colours according as the sun’s heat or the cloud’s moisture prevailed (Guthrie, 139)
2． 地震的形成：Anaximenes says that when the earth is in process of becoming wet or dry it breaks, and is shaken by the high ground breaking and falling; which is why earthquakes occur in droughts and again in heavy rains: for in droughts the earth is dried and so, as just explained, breaks, and when the rains make it excessively wet it falls apart (Aristotle, Meteor. 365b, qt. Guthrie, 139)。
VI. 评价
1． 阿那克西曼尼以“气”为世界本原，虽然可以说是一种退步，相较于阿那克西曼德的更为抽象的“未定”。“气”仍为感性的物质性的规定，但较之泰勒斯的“水”，更为 non-perceptible，这是一进步。同时吸收了阿那克西曼德认为本原在空间、数量上无限的理论。
2． 阿那克西曼将本原和“灵魂”联系起来。黑格而有很高的评价：“Anaximenes shows very clearly the nature of his essence in the soul, and he thus points out what may be called the transition of natural philosophy into the philosophy of consciousness, or the surrender of the objective form of principle” (190)。此点影响到阿那克萨戈拉对灵魂/理智和物质的区分。
3． 但阿那克西曼尼最主要的贡献还是生成机制的提出：凝聚和稀疏。他的理论“is the first theory answering the question, How can there be development out of one primal material?”， 此种将物质的性质的变化归因于数量的变化的思想影响甚巨（包括现代科学），“The significance of this principle of thinning and thickening lies in its advancement toward an explanation of the world from mechanical principles –the raw material of materialistic atomistic systems” (Nietzsche, 42)。柏奈特认为阿那克西曼尼乃米利都学派的集大成者（the culminating point of the line of thought which started with Thales, and to show how the “philosophy of Anaximenes” came to mean the Milesian doctrine as a whole）：At first, this looks like a falling off from the more refined doctrine of Anaximander to a cruder view…In fact, it makes the Milesian cosmology consistent for the first time; since a theory which explains everything as a form of a single substance is clearly bound to regard all differences as quantitative. The only way to save the unity of the primary substance is to say that all diversities are due to the presence of more or less of it in a given space (74)。但泰勒斯应该已经有此等凝聚和稀疏的思想，而阿那克西曼尼将其系统化，故黑格尔将此种思想归之于泰勒斯 （181）。而柏奈特亦提到Aristotle 在其《物理学》中似暗示阿那克西曼德已提及condensation和rarefaction （Burnet, 74, n. 1）。
4． 在古代，阿那克西曼尼受到更多的尊崇：Anaximenes was more admired in antiquity than Anaximander (Russell, 28)。
A. 对毕达哥拉斯的影响
B. 阿那克萨戈拉对“灵魂”的强调
C. 对原子论者机械论的影响。
D. 对伦理化时期的哲学和中世纪神学的影响
注：柏奈特强调阿那克西曼尼的影响时没有侧重他的一些负面作用，如他认为地球是漂浮在空气中的平、圆的桌状之物。
5． 但现代却会有相反的评论：though almost any modern world would make the opposite valuation(Russell, 28)。现代学术的专业化和世俗化产生此种转变。对阿那克西曼尼批评主要集中在（和阿那克西曼德相比）：
A. 想象力的缺乏。
B. 理论建构不够大胆。
C. 数学模型运用的阙如。
D. 理论阐释方面的逻辑性、体系建立能力的欠缺。
Works Cited:
Aristotle. Metaphysics. 2nd ed. Trans. W.D. Ross. In The Works of Aristotle. Vol. VIII. Oxford: Clarendon, 1928.
Burnet, John. Early Greek Philosophy. 4th ed. London: Adam &Charles Black, 1948.
Guthrie, W.K.C. A History of Greek Philosophy. Vol. I. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1962.
Hegel, G. W. F. Lectures on the History of Philosophy. Trans. E.S. Haldane.
London: Kegan Paul, 1892.
Kirk, G. , Raven, J. and Schofield M. The Presocratic Philosophers. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1983.
Nietzsche, F. The Pre-Platonic Philosophers. Trans. Greg Whitlock. Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2001.
Russell, Bertrand. A History of Western Philosophy. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1945.
赵敦华，《西方哲学简史》，北京大学出版社，2001。
VII. 师承
“Anaximenes son of Eurystratus, of Miletus, was a pupil of Anaximander; some say he was also a pupil of Parmenides. He said that the material principle was air and the infinite; and that the stars move, not under the earth, but round it. He used simple and economical Ionic speech. He was active, according to what Apollodorus says, around the time of the capture of Sardis, and died in the 63rd Olympiad (Diogenes Laertius II, 3, qt. Kirk, 143)。
前苏格拉哲学家之间的传承关系并非像后来柏拉图的Academy、Aristotle和Peripatetics那样明显，第一个带哲学色彩的群体的建立是毕达哥拉斯学派，而这也更多是一宗教性质的团体。拉尔修（Laertius）指出有关阿那克西曼尼师承的两种看法：
4． 阿那克西曼尼是阿那克西曼德的学生。绝大部分研究者均持此论，如 Hgel, Zeller, Cornford, Burnet, Guthrie, Windelband, Thilly, and Russell。
5． 阿那克西曼尼师承巴曼尼德。而尼采独持此论断，认为正确的传承关系是：阿那克西曼德----巴曼尼德----阿那克西曼尼。尼采认为“He[Anaximenes] was born during Olympiad 63 (529-525)”(39)，这与通常认为阿那克西曼尼死于Olympiad 63 (529-525)差别太大，而且尼采的推论在学术的内在理路上也缺乏证据：如果阿那克西曼尼是巴曼尼德的学生，那为何巴曼尼德一些重要理论未见阿那克西曼尼有所提及和分析？如存在和非存在、思维和存在的关系、知识（真理）和意见的区分。 这个问题涉及文本的解读，以及复杂的日期推演。 如果将阿那克西曼尼是为阿那克西曼德、而非巴曼尼德的继承者，至少在哲学发展的内在逻辑上是很合理的，正如Zeller 所言：“Anaximenes, also a Milesian, is called by later writers the disciple of Anaximander, which is at least so far true that he clearly betrays the influence of his predecessor (41)”。
VIII. 作品和文体
“He used simple and economical Ionic speech”。这是相对于Anaximander而言的。阿那克西曼德虽然是用散文撰述哲学作品的第一人，但仍保留诗意化的语言：“speaking of them thus in rather poetical terms”。阿那克西曼尼能够使用简单而经济（simple and economical）的语言来进行哲学写作，表明思辨能力以及语言的掌握、运用能力的提高。
IX. 本体论
1. “气”作为本原：
(a). “Anaximenes and Diogenes make air prior to water” (Aristotle, Metaphysics, 984 a)。
(b). Anaximenes of Miletos, son of Eurystratos, who had been an associate of Anaximander, said, like him, that the underlying substance was one and infinite. He did not, however, say it was indeterminate, like Anaximander, but determinate; for he said it was Air (Phys. Op. fr. 2 qt. Burnet, 73).
(c). Anaximenes said that infinite air was the principle, from which the things that are becoming, and that are, and that shall be, and gods and things divine. All come into being and the rest form its products. The form of air is of this kind: whenever it is most equable it is invisible to sight, but is revealed by the cold and the hot and the damp and by movement (Hippolytus Ref. 1, 7, I, qt. Kirk, 145)。
A. 思想的来源与传承：文献（a）表明阿那克西曼尼在泰勒斯的基础上提出是“气”，而非“水”乃世界的本源。文献（b）则说明阿那克西曼尼肯定阿那克西曼德对世界本原的空间和数量上的无限的规定，但不认为其性质“未定”， 而是一种确定的物质形式--“气”。
B. “气”的理解：
（1） “气”（air）在阿那克西曼尼是其有四种含义
（a） In its normal condition, when most evenly distributed, it is invisible, and it then corresponds to our “air”
（b） The breath we inhale
（c） The wind that blows
（d） Mist or vapour
（2） 柏奈特（Burnet）认为阿那克西曼尼以“气”为世界的本原时，涵括此四种含义上。因为“It was Empedokles we shall see, who first discovered that what we call air was a distinct corporeal substance, and not identical with vapour or with empty space (74)。
（3） 但Kirk认为：“Anaximenes probably said that all things were surrounded by “wind (or breath) and air”, and that the soul is related to this air; which suggests that for him air was not mist but, as Hippolytus assumed, the invisible atmospheric air. This is confirmed by the fact that he evidently described winds as slightly condensed form of air (146).
C. 阿那克西曼尼提出以“气”为始基的理由
D. 宇宙物质也应该是生命物质。此点类似泰勒斯认为“水”是本原的理由（Aristotle, Metaphysics, 983b）。阿那克西曼尼观察到呼吸乃生命的象征，而呼吸即“灵气”、“灵魂”： “Just as,” he said, “our soul, being air, holds us together, so do breath and air encompass the whole world” (Aet. Qt. Burnet, 73)。
E. 受到阿那克西曼德的影响，阿那克西曼尼修正泰勒斯的观点，认为更具变化、更不易感知、无限的“气”方为世界本原。
F. Guthrie 认为一理论的提出除了有意识、理性的理论建构之外，还受到“无意识的预设”（unconscious presupposition）的影响：which were his inheritance from the current and popular views of his time (119)。此种预设包括：
（1） That the air which we breathe should be the life itself which animates us is a common idea, and the breath-soul a world-wild conception (128)
（2） The idea that a female could be impregnated, and thus new life originated—Achilles in Iliad (128)
（3） Orphism: “the soul enters into us from the whole as we breathe, borne by the winds” (129).
2．“气”乃神圣（air is divine）：此点同阿那克西曼德，将本原视为神圣：Afterwards, Anaximenes determined that air is a god, and that it comes into being, and is measureless and infinite and always in motion (Cicero, qt. Kirk, 150)。
6． 万物之生成
A. 原因：与泰勒斯和阿那克西曼德通，持物活论，认为本原乃 self-caused, 处self-movement, eternal-motion的状态。
B. 生成的机制：It is always in motion; for things that change do not change unless there be movement. Through becoming denser or finer it has different appearance; for when it is dissolved into what is finer it becomes fire, while winds, again, are air that is becoming condensed and cloud is produced from air by felting. When it is condensed still more, water produced, and when condensed as far as possible, stones. The result is that the most influential components of generation are opposites, hot and cold (Hippolytus Ref. 1, 7, I, qt. Kirk, 145)。这就是阿那克西曼尼的事物的生成乃因本原“气”的“凝聚”(condensation)和“稀薄”(rarefaction)。此理论的提出应该是基于日常生活的观察：呼出的气流可以是冷气，也可以是热气。在这里，阿那克西曼德的“冷”和“热”的对立就体现在气的“稀” （rarity）、“凝”（density）。阿那克西曼德是一中分离生成观，而阿那克曼尼是一种“典型的转化生成观”（赵敦华，11）。
X. 宇宙论
1． 地球：As the air “felted”, earth, he says, came into being first, quite flat; wherefore it rides, as is reasonable, upon the air (Stromateis, qt. Guthrie, 133)。
A. “气”凝聚首先形成地球
B. 平、圆的地球，如同一桌子，可以否在空气之中。
2． 天体的形成：And the sun, moon and other heavenly bodies originate from earth. He argues at any rate that the sun is earth but acquires great heat form its swift motion (Guthrie, 133).
A. 太阳、月亮和其他天体都是源于地球。照此解释，天体的形成过程应该是“气”先凝聚而成地球，在从地球稀薄成火，从而形成群星。此点是阿那克西曼尼宇宙论中混乱之处。
B. 因为源于地球，故太阳也和地球有同样的构成，只是因为快速的运转而温度很高。
3．对阿那克西曼德宇宙论的一点修正：But on one astronomical point Anaximenes improved on Anaximander, for the report in Hippolytus that according to him “the stars give no heat owing to that their great distance” shows that he abandoned the strange doctrine that the stars are nearer the earth than is the sun (Guthrie, 138)。
XI. 气象学
1． 虹（Rainbow）的形成：He also spoke of the rainbow, no longer a radiant goddess Iris but only the effect of the sun’s rays on densely compacted air, which appeared in different colours according as the sun’s heat or the cloud’s moisture prevailed (Guthrie, 139)
2． 地震的形成：Anaximenes says that when the earth is in process of becoming wet or dry it breaks, and is shaken by the high ground breaking and falling; which is why earthquakes occur in droughts and again in heavy rains: for in droughts the earth is dried and so, as just explained, breaks, and when the rains make it excessively wet it falls apart (Aristotle, Meteor. 365b, qt. Guthrie, 139)。
XII. 评价
1． 阿那克西曼尼以“气”为世界本原，虽然可以说是一种退步，相较于阿那克西曼德的更为抽象的“未定”。“气”仍为感性的物质性的规定，但较之泰勒斯的“水”，更为 non-perceptible，这是一进步。同时吸收了阿那克西曼德认为本原在空间、数量上无限的理论。
2． 阿那克西曼将本原和“灵魂”联系起来。黑格而有很高的评价：“Anaximenes shows very clearly the nature of his essence in the soul, and he thus points out what may be called the transition of natural philosophy into the philosophy of consciousness, or the surrender of the objective form of principle” (190)。此点影响到阿那克萨戈拉对灵魂/理智和物质的区分。
3． 但阿那克西曼尼最主要的贡献还是生成机制的提出：凝聚和稀疏。他的理论“is the first theory answering the question, How can there be development out of one primal material?”， 此种将物质的性质的变化归因于数量的变化的思想影响甚巨（包括现代科学），“The significance of this principle of thinning and thickening lies in its advancement toward an explanation of the world from mechanical principles –the raw material of materialistic atomistic systems” (Nietzsche, 42)。柏奈特认为阿那克西曼尼乃米利都学派的集大成者（the culminating point of the line of thought which started with Thales, and to show how the “philosophy of Anaximenes” came to mean the Milesian doctrine as a whole）：At first, this looks like a falling off from the more refined doctrine of Anaximander to a cruder view…In fact, it makes the Milesian cosmology consistent for the first time; since a theory which explains everything as a form of a single substance is clearly bound to regard all differences as quantitative. The only way to save the unity of the primary substance is to say that all diversities are due to the presence of more or less of it in a given space (74)。但泰勒斯应该已经有此等凝聚和稀疏的思想，而阿那克西曼尼将其系统化，故黑格尔将此种思想归之于泰勒斯 （181）。而柏奈特亦提到Aristotle 在其《物理学》中似暗示阿那克西曼德已提及condensation和rarefaction （Burnet, 74, n. 1）。
4． 在古代，阿那克西曼尼受到更多的尊崇：Anaximenes was more admired in antiquity than Anaximander (Russell, 28)。
A. 对毕达哥拉斯的影响
B. 阿那克萨戈拉对“灵魂”的强调
C. 对原子论者机械论的影响。
D. 对伦理化时期的哲学和中世纪神学的影响
注：柏奈特强调阿那克西曼尼的影响时没有侧重他的一些负面作用，如他认为地球是漂浮在空气中的平、圆的桌状之物。
5． 但现代却会有相反的评论：though almost any modern world would make the opposite valuation(Russell, 28)。现代学术的专业化和世俗化产生此种转变。对阿那克西曼尼批评主要集中在（和阿那克西曼德相比）：
A. 想象力的缺乏。
B. 理论建构不够大胆。
C. 数学模型运用的阙如。
D. 理论阐释方面的逻辑性、体系建立能力的欠缺。
Works Cited:
Aristotle. Metaphysics. 2nd ed. Trans. W.D. Ross. In The Works of Aristotle. Vol. VIII. Oxford: Clarendon, 1928.
Burnet, John. Early Greek Philosophy. 4th ed. London: Adam &Charles Black, 1948.
Guthrie, W.K.C. A History of Greek Philosophy. Vol. I. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1962.
Hegel, G. W. F. Lectures on the History of Philosophy. Trans. E.S. Haldane.
London: Kegan Paul, 1892.
Kirk, G. , Raven, J. and Schofield M. The Presocratic Philosophers. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1983.
Nietzsche, F. The Pre-Platonic Philosophers. Trans. Greg Whitlock. Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2001.
Russell, Bertrand. A History of Western Philosophy. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1945.
赵敦华，《西方哲学简史》，北京大学出版社，2001。